Marble in Antiquity. Identification, use and distribution

The subject of this course involves issues related to the identification and use of white marbles and coloured stones in

Antiquity.

The vital part of the course is a general outlook on the main metamorphic, sedimentary, and magmatic rocks. The main

archaeometric methods of marble provenance determination, as well as the question of quarry techniques, marble

distribution and import during the Roman Empire, are also topics of the classes.

According to the archaeological finds, the white marble was already used for sculptural purposes during the 3rd millennium

BC. From this period came the famous Cycladic idols. However, the systematic exploitation of marble and its use for

sculptural and then for architectural purposes took place from the beginning of the Archaic period in Greece and Asia Minor

The subject of this course involves issues related to the identification and use of white marbles and coloured stones in

Antiquity.

The vital part of the course is a general outlook on the main metamorphic, sedimentary and magmatic rocks. The main

archaeometric methods of marble provenance determination, as well as the question of quarry techniques, marble

distribution and import during the Roman Empire are also topics of the classes.

According to the archaeological finds, the white marble was already used for sculptural purposes during the 3rd millennium

BC. From this period came the famous Cycladic idols. However, systematic exploitation of marble and its use for sculptural

and then for architectural purposes took place from the beginning of the Archaic period in Greece and Asia Minor. In this

period white marble artefacts had been already imported from Greece into the western (Magna Graecia) and eastern (Syro-

Palestine) Mediterranean areas.

Coloured marbles and stones were widespread mainly since the Hellenistic period. After the trend established by the

Hellenistic rulers, both white and coloured marbles started to adorn the private houses of the Roman elite, especially since

the Late Republic period. They were considered as a sign of the economic wealth.

The Roman Empire period was a time of intensive building activity in Rome and in Roman provinces. Consequently, the

marble quarries had been exploited in unparalleled scale compared to previous periods. Efficient and vast system of marble

administration, distribution and extraction was therefore developed.

In Antiquity the marble was considered as an extremely precious material. Its extraction and distribution were important

part of the ancient world economy. The different prices of marble material were related to multiple factors such as a very

expensive land transport (e.g. from Dokimeion) or a cheaper sea transport (e.g. from Thasos, Prokonnesos), activity of

famous sculptural workshops (Athens – Pentelic marble) and excellent quality of marble (Paros) among others.

Marble studies and the identification of its quarry sources are essential factors for the reconstruction of one of the key

elements of the ancient world economy such as the marble trade. They are also extremely important for deeper

understanding of the history of ancient sculpture: to correctly reconstruct activity of the sculptural workshops of ancient

Greece and Rome.

ASMOSIA I-XII. Proceedings of the International Conferences of the Association for the Study of Marble and Other

Stones in Antiquity

 Dworakowska, Quarries in Ancient Greece, Wrocław 1975.

 Dworakowska, Quarries in Roman Provinces, Wrocław 1983.

 A.M. Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World. Organizational Aspects 27 BC – AD 235, Oxford 2010.

 L. Lazzarini, Poikiloi lithoi, versiculores maculae: i marmi colorati della Grecia antica, Pisa 2005.

 D. Monna, P. Pensabene, Marmi dell’Asia Minore, Roma 1977.

 P. Pensabene, Le vie del marmo, Roma 1994.

 P. Pensabene, I marmi nella Roma antica, Roma 2013.

 Russell, The Economics of the Roman Stone Trade. Oxford 2013.

 M. Waelkens (ed.), Pierre éternelle. Du Nil au Rhin. Carrières et préfabrication. Exposition Bruxelles 12 octobre au 2

décembre 1990, Bruxelles 1990.

 J. B. Ward-Perkins, Marble in Antiquity. Collected Papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins, London 1992.

K_W02 has a basic knowledge of terminology associated with stones/rocks used in Antiquity

K_W02 has a basic knowledge of rocks categories and rocks classification

K_W02 has a basic knowledge of rocks (marbles and other stones) categories used in Antiquity

K_W03 has the basic knowledge of the analytical methods applied to the archaeometric research, especially in marble provenance studies

K_W03 new competences in identification of white and polychrome rocks (marbles and other stones) used in Antiquity

K_W06 has a basic knowledge of the relations between archaeology and other disciplines of humanities, social sciences, natural sciences

and other sciences

K_W07 understands the relationship between the achievements of a selected field of science and the prospects of their use in

archaeology

K_W11 knows and understands the basic methods of analysis and interpretation of information from scientific publications published in

English

K_W15 has a general knowledge of the properties of raw materials and ancient technologies of utilising them, with particular emphasis on

raw materials available in the Mediterranean basin

K_W15 has a basic knowledge about the marble and other coloured stones distribution and use in Antiquity

K_U02 can search, analyse, evaluate, select and use information obtained from various sources

K_U03 can independently interpret archaeological sources, select appropriate analytical methods, and present the obtained results in

English

K_U13 understands the importance of marble and other stones as the archaeological source

K_U13 can discover simple relationships between artefacts and past cultural and social processes, with particular reference to the

Mediterranean area

K_K04 able to critically evaluate the interpretation of archaeological and historical sources, with an awareness of the multifaceted nature

of the interpretation

The students have read required pub

lications, and be active – participate in discussion (prepare oral presentations) during the classes. The attendance record is

required. The classes will end with an oral exam.